Describing a soil profile in the field在野外描述一个土壤剖面

1Before you go出发之前

Take the following. Most of it fits in a day pack.

请带上以下装备，大部分都装得进一个日用背包。

• A spade — a straight-bladed one, not a garden shovel. A soil auger if you have one.
• A knife — for cutting a clean face, testing how weathered the stones are, and lifting peds out whole.
• A tape measure, at least 1.5 m, and something to hold it against the face.
• A water bottle — for wetting samples for texture, for the slake test, and for seeing whether pumice floats.
• A Munsell soil colour chart if the department has one. The colour picker in this app is a computed approximation and is not a substitute.
• Dilute (10%) hydrochloric acid in a dropper bottle, for carbonate.
• A field pH kit, and sodium fluoride solution with phenolphthalein paper if you have them.
• A phone or notebook. Once the field key is open it makes no further network requests, so it keeps working where there is no coverage. Load it before you leave the road end, and do not reload the page in the field. What you type is saved in the browser on your own device and goes nowhere else.

• 一把铁锹——要平刃的，不是园艺用的圆头铲。有土钻的话也带上。
• 一把小刀——用来削出干净的剖面、检验石砾的风化程度，以及把结构体完整地挑出来。
• 一把卷尺，至少 1.5 米，外加固定它贴住剖面的东西。
• 一瓶水——用于润湿样品测质地、做崩解试验，以及看浮石会不会浮起来。
• 一本 Munsell 土壤比色卡，如果系里有的话。本应用里的取色器只是计算出的近似值，不能替代比色卡。
• 10% 稀盐酸，装在滴瓶里，用于检测碳酸盐。
• 一套野外 pH 速测盒；有条件的话，再带氟化钠溶液和酚酞试纸。
• 手机或记录本。野外检索表一旦打开，就不再发出任何网络请求，因此在没有信号的地方照样能用。请在离开路口之前把页面加载好，并且不要在野外刷新页面。你输入的内容保存在自己设备的浏览器里，不会传到别处。

Get permission before you dig anywhere, fill the pit in afterwards, and replace the turf the right way up. On Māori land, and on any site of cultural significance, ask first and accept the answer.

在任何地方开挖之前都要先取得许可，挖完把坑填回去，草皮按原来的正面铺好。在毛利人的土地上，以及任何具有文化意义的场所，先征询意见，并尊重对方的答复。

2Choosing the site and opening the face选点与开挖剖面

A soil is a three-dimensional body in a landscape, and where you put the pit decides what you find. Choose a spot that represents the land unit you are interested in — not the gateway, not the stock camp, not the old fenceline, and not the one wet hollow in an otherwise dry paddock. Note the landform, the slope and the position on the slope. A soil on a crest, a soil on the mid-slope and a soil in the hollow below it are usually three different soils, and often three different orders.

土壤是景观中的三维实体，剖面坑挖在哪里，决定了你会看到什么。要选一处能代表你所关心的那个土地单元的位置——不要选在门口、牲畜聚集地、旧围栏线上，也不要选在一片干燥草场中唯一的那个湿洼地。记下地貌、坡度以及在坡面上的位置。坡顶的土壤、坡中的土壤和坡脚洼地的土壤，通常是三种不同的土壤，而且往往分属三个不同的土纲。

Dig to 1 m if you safely can, or to rock or the water table if you meet either first. Then:

在安全的前提下挖到 1 米深；若先遇到基岩或地下水位，则挖到那里为止。然后：

1. Cut one face clean and vertical with the spade, and finish it with the knife. Never describe a smeared spade face — smearing destroys the structure and hides the colour.
2. Face the pit so the light falls on the clean face. Describe in the shade if the sun is direct; a face in full sun reads two value steps too light.
3. Pick out a fist-sized lump from each layer and break it open. Describe colour and structure on the freshly broken face, never on the cut one.
4. Run the tape down the face from the top of the mineral soil. Every depth in the key is measured from there, not from the top of the litter or the grass.

1. 用铁锹削出一个干净的垂直剖面，再用小刀修整。绝不要在被抹平的锹面上做描述——抹面会破坏结构、掩盖颜色。
2. 让剖面朝向能受光的一侧。阳光直射时要在阴影下描述；烈日下的剖面读出来的明度会偏高两级。
3. 从每一层取一块拳头大的土块掰开。颜色和结构都要在新鲜断面上描述，绝不能用削出来的切面。
4. 卷尺自矿质土表面向下量。检索表中的所有深度都从这里起算，而不是从枯枝落叶层或草皮顶面起算。

3Splitting the profile into horizons划分发生层

A horizon is a layer that differs from the layers above and below it in colour, texture, structure, consistence or the presence of something obvious such as stones, mottles or a pan. Run your finger down the face and mark every change you can feel or see, then decide which of those changes matter.

发生层是指在颜色、质地、结构、坚实度，或某些明显特征（如石砾、斑纹、盘层）上与上下相邻层次不同的一个层次。用手指沿剖面自上而下划过，把每一处摸得出或看得见的变化都标出来，然后再判断哪些变化是重要的。

The notations you will meet most often in New Zealand:

在新西兰最常遇到的层次符号：

Two thresholds decide more classifications than any others, so measure them rather than guessing:

有两个界限值决定的分类结果比其他任何界限都多，所以要实测，不要凭感觉：

• A distinct topsoil is 5 cm or more thick, and its moist colour value and/or chroma is lower than the horizon below. This single test separates Recent Soils from Raw Soils.
• A B horizon that qualifies for Brown Soils is 10 cm or more thick with its base at 30 cm or deeper. A thin smear of brown at 15 cm is not a B horizon.

• 明显的表土层指厚度 5 厘米以上，且润态颜色的明度和／或彩度低于下层。仅凭这一项，就能把 Recent Soils 与 Raw Soils 区分开。
• 够得上 Brown Soils 标准的 B 层，厚度须在 10 厘米以上，且底界在 30 厘米或更深处。15 厘米处薄薄一抹棕色并不算 B 层。

4Colour颜色

Colour is the cheapest information in the pit and it carries more weight in the key than anything except texture. It is recorded as a Munsell notation — hue value/chroma, for example 10YR 4/3.

颜色是剖面坑里最廉价的信息，而在检索表中的分量仅次于质地。它以 Munsell 记法记录，即 色调 明度/彩度，例如 10YR 4/3。

Hue

Where the colour sits between red and yellow: 10R, 2.5YR, 5YR, 7.5YR, 10YR, 2.5Y, 5Y, then the greenish and bluish gley pages. Iron oxides make soil red; their absence leaves it grey.

Value

How light it is, from 2 (nearly black) to 8 (nearly white). Organic matter drives value down; so does wetting a sample, which is why the notation must say whether it is moist or dry.

Chroma

How strong the colour is, from 1 (grey) to 8. Low chroma at depth means iron has been removed — usually by reduction under waterlogging, sometimes because there was never much there.

色调（hue）

颜色在红与黄之间的位置：10R、2.5YR、5YR、7.5YR、10YR、2.5Y、5Y，再往后是潜育色的绿色与蓝色页。氧化铁使土壤发红，缺了它就发灰。

明度（value）

颜色的明暗程度，自 2（近乎黑）到 8（近乎白）。有机质会压低明度，润湿样品同样会压低明度——正因如此，记录时必须注明是润态还是干态。

彩度（chroma）

颜色的浓淡程度，自 1（灰）到 8。深处彩度低，说明铁已被淋失——通常是渍水条件下还原所致，有时则是本来就含铁很少。

Always record the moist colour of the matrix — the body of the horizon, not the mottles and not the ped faces. Hold the chart beside the fresh break, in the shade, and choose the chip that disappears against the soil.

始终记录基质的润态颜色——即层次的主体部分，不是斑纹，也不是结构面。把比色卡贴在新鲜断面旁，在阴影中比对，选那块贴上去就"消失"在土色里的色片。

Three colour thresholds do most of the work in the key:

检索表中的大部分工作，由三个颜色界限值完成：

• Chroma 2 or less (or chroma 3 with value 6 or more) over half or more of the face is a greyish, reductimorphic colour. That is the gate into Gley Soils.
• Hue 7.5YR or redder, or 10YR with chroma 6 or more, is a Brown Soil colour.
• 10YR or yellower with chroma 3 or less and value 4 or more is a Pallic Soil colour. Between those two lies a band — 10YR or yellower with chroma 4 or 5 — where colour alone cannot decide, and phosphate retention or the NaF test has to settle it.

• 剖面上有一半以上面积彩度 ≤ 2（或彩度 3 而明度 ≥ 6），即为灰色的还原型颜色。这是进入 Gley Soils 的门槛。
• 色调 7.5YR 或更红，或 10YR 而彩度 ≥ 6，属于 Brown Soils 的颜色。
• 10YR 或更黄，彩度 ≤ 3 且明度 ≥ 4，属于 Pallic Soils 的颜色。两者之间还留有一个地带——10YR 或更黄、彩度 4 或 5——在这个范围内仅凭颜色无法判定，必须由磷酸盐吸持量或 NaF 速测来决定。

5Texture by hand手测质地

Texture is the proportion of sand, silt and clay, judged by working a wet sample in the hand. It is the method every field soil scientist in the country uses, it takes about two minutes per horizon, and it is accurate to within a texture class once you have calibrated your hands against a few known samples.

质地指砂粒、粉粒与黏粒的比例，通过在手中揉搓润湿的样品来判断。全国每一位野外土壤学家都用这个方法，每个层次约需两分钟；只要用几个已知样品校准过自己的手感，判断结果可以准确到质地级别之内。

1. Take a sample about the size of a walnut. Pick out the stones and any roots.
2. Add water a few drops at a time and knead it into a ball — a bolus — until it just stops sticking to your fingers. This takes a minute or two of steady kneading. Do not rush it; an under-kneaded bolus reads too sandy and a sloppy one reads too clayey.
3. Feel it. Gritty means sand — you can hear it as well as feel it. Silky or floury means silt. Sticky and plastic, taking a polish when you smear it, means clay.
4. Press the bolus out between thumb and forefinger into a ribbon. Push with the thumb; do not roll. Measure the ribbon that hangs unsupported before it breaks.

1. 取一块核桃大小的样品，把石砾和根系挑出去。
2. 每次加几滴水，揉成一个土球（bolus），揉到刚好不再粘手为止。这需要一两分钟不停地揉搓。不要图快：揉得不够，读数会偏砂；揉得太稀，读数会偏黏。
3. 用手感判断。有砂砾感说明含砂——这种感觉不仅摸得到，还听得见。有丝滑感或面粉感说明含粉粒。发黏、可塑，抹开时出现光泽，说明含黏粒。
4. 把土球夹在拇指与食指之间推出一条土带。要用拇指往前推，不要搓。量一量土带断裂前悬空的长度。

The field key runs this as a guided decision tree — open a horizon and press the texture button.

野外检索表把这套流程做成了逐步引导的判别树——展开某个层次，点击质地按钮即可。

6Structure, pedality and strength结构、结构发育度与强度

Break a lump open by pressing gently until it fails along its natural planes, and look at the pieces it falls into. Those pieces are peds.

轻轻施压把土块掰开，让它沿自然结构面破裂，再看它散成什么形状的碎块。这些碎块就是结构体（ped）。

Structure

The shape of the peds — crumb, granular (worm casts), nutty, blocky, fine polyhedral, prismatic, columnar, platy. Or apedal: single grain (loose sand) or massive (one coherent lump with no natural planes).

Pedality

How well developed the peds are: weak (they barely separate), moderate, or strong (they fall apart cleanly and hold their shape). Measure the ped size while you are there — 20 mm is a threshold in the Granular Soils key.

Strength (consistence)

How hard it is to crush a moist ped between finger and thumb: very weak, weak, slightly firm, firm, very firm, hard. Judge it moist, and say which.

Failure

How it breaks. Friable failure crumbles; brittle failure snaps with a clean fracture. Brittle failure in a dense horizon is the signature of a fragipan.

结构（structure）

结构体的形状——团粒状、粒状（蚯蚓粪）、核状、块状、细多面体状、棱柱状、柱状、片状；或者无结构：单粒（松散砂）与整块状（一整块紧实土体，没有自然结构面）。

结构发育度（pedality）

结构体发育的好坏：弱（勉强能分开）、中等、强（干净利落地散开，且能保持形状）。顺便量一下结构体的大小——20 毫米是 Granular Soils 检索中的一个界限值。

强度／坚实度（consistence）

用手指捏碎一块润态结构体的难易程度：极弱、弱、稍坚实、坚实、很坚实、硬。要在润态下判断，并注明状态。

破碎方式（failure）

它是怎么碎的。疏松易碎（friable）是散成碎屑；脆性破碎（brittle）是"啪"地一声出现干净的断口。致密层次中的脆性破碎，是脆磐的标志。

Two structural observations decide orders on their own. A soil that is friable from very moist right through to dry, and crushes to stable crumbs of about 3 mm, is oxidic. A soil that is friable only near field capacity, sticky and very plastic when wetter and brick-hard when drier, is cutanoxidic and points at Granular Soils. Work the same clay at two moisture contents before you choose between them.

有两项结构观察本身就能定土纲。从很润一直到干都疏松易碎、并且能捏成约 3 毫米稳定团粒的土壤，属于氧化型（oxidic）。只在接近田间持水量时才疏松易碎、更湿时发黏且塑性很强、更干时硬如砖块的土壤，属于胶膜氧化型（cutanoxidic），指向 Granular Soils。在这两者之间下判断前，请把同一块黏土在两种含水量下各揉一遍。

7Mottles, greyness and wetness斑纹、灰色与湿润状况

Where a soil is waterlogged for long enough, oxygen runs out, micro-organisms reduce iron and manganese, and the reduced iron dissolves and moves. What is left behind is a record of how wet the soil gets and for how long. Read it as follows.

土壤渍水时间够长时，氧气耗尽，微生物把铁和锰还原，还原态的铁随即溶解迁移。留下来的痕迹，就是这个土壤有多湿、湿多久的一份记录。可以这样解读。

• Redox mottles — orange, rust or reddish-brown blotches and pipes, usually along root channels and ped faces. They mean the soil wets and dries. Record whether they are few (under 2%), common (2–20%) or many (over 20%).
• Greyish matrix colours — chroma 2 or less over half or more of the cut face. This is a reductimorphic horizon, and it means prolonged saturation, not just occasional wetting.
• Where the grey sits tells you where the water comes from. Grey on the ped faces with orange inside the peds means water perched on a slowly permeable layer. Grey through the matrix with orange along the pores means a rising groundwater table.

• 氧化还原斑纹——橙色、锈色或红棕色的斑块与管状体，通常沿根孔和结构面分布。它们说明土壤有干湿交替。记录其多少：少（低于 2%）、中（2–20%）、多（高于 20%）。
• 基质呈灰色——剖面上一半以上面积彩度 ≤ 2。这是还原型层次，表示长期饱和，而不只是偶尔湿润。
• 灰色出现的位置告诉你水从哪里来。结构面发灰、结构体内部发橙，说明水滞留在一个透水缓慢的层次之上（上层滞水）；基质整体发灰、孔隙周围发橙，说明是地下水位上升所致。

For a soil to key out as a Gley Soil the greyness must start near the surface — within 15 cm of the base of the topsoil, or 30 cm of the mineral surface — and must run to 90 cm or deeper. Grey that starts at 60 cm, or that stops at 50 cm over a fragipan, is telling you something else.

要检索为 Gley Soils，灰色必须在近地表处就开始——表土层底界以下 15 厘米以内，或矿质土表面以下 30 厘米以内——并且一直延续到 90 厘米或更深。若灰色从 60 厘米才开始，或在脆磐之上 50 厘米处就终止，那说明的是另一回事。

8Roots, earthworms and rooting depth根系、蚯蚓与根系深度

Roots and earthworms do not appear in the key by name, but they are the fastest reading you will get of what the soil is actually like to live in, and they will often tell you where to look.

检索表里并没有点名提到根系和蚯蚓，但它们是你能最快获得的一项读数——告诉你这个土壤住起来究竟怎么样，而且常常能指引你该往哪里看。

• Where roots stop marks a chemical or physical barrier. Note the depth and find out which. Aluminium toxicity below about pH 5.2, a fragipan, a cemented pan, a water table, or rock.
• Roots running only down cracks and worm channels, with none through the body of the peds, is one of the defining features of a fragipan.
• Earthworms need pH above about 4.5, calcium, and air. Abundant worms and a crumb topsoil of worm casts suggest Melanic or well-managed Brown Soils; no worms at all in a wet grey profile means Gley, and in an acid leached one means Podzol.
• A worm-mixed horizon less than 5 cm thick at the base of the A horizon is one leg of the Semiarid Soils definition — these soils are too dry for much biological mixing.

• 根系止于何处标志着一道化学或物理障碍。记下深度，并查明是哪一种：pH 低于约 5.2 时的铝毒、脆磐、胶结硬磐、地下水位，或基岩。
• 根系只沿裂隙和蚯蚓孔道下伸、完全不穿入结构体内部，是脆磐的定义性特征之一。
• 蚯蚓需要 pH 高于约 4.5、有钙、有空气。蚯蚓多、表土由蚓粪构成团粒结构，提示 Melanic Soils 或管理良好的 Brown Soils；潮湿灰色剖面中完全没有蚯蚓，指向 Gley Soils；强酸淋溶剖面中没有蚯蚓，则指向 Podzols。
• A 层底部蚯蚓扰动层厚度不足 5 厘米，是 Semiarid Soils 定义的组成条件之一——这类土壤太干，生物扰动很有限。

9The five field tests五项野外速测

The smear test — for allophanic material涂抹试验——检测水铝英石物质

Take a moist crumb and rub it hard between finger and thumb. Allophanic material changes state: it stops behaving like a crumb and becomes a greasy, soapy, slippery paste that feels like wet soap. Nothing else in a New Zealand soil does this. Combined with very weak strength, a non-sticky feel and surprisingly low weight, it is the whole diagnosis of an Allophanic Soil.

取一小块润态土粒，在拇指与食指间用力搓抹。水铝英石物质会发生状态改变：不再像团粒，而变成油滑、皂感、发腻的糊状物，手感像湿肥皂。新西兰土壤中没有别的东西会这样。再加上强度极弱、不粘手、以及出人意料的轻，这就是 Allophanic Soils 的全部诊断依据。

Dilute acid — for carbonate稀酸试验——检测碳酸盐

One drop of 10% HCl on a freshly cut face. Fizzing means calcium carbonate. Test the topsoil, the subsoil and any white coatings on stone undersides separately: carbonate inherited from limestone and carbonate that has accumulated in a dry subsoil mean different things, and the second is what a Semiarid Soil is about.

在新鲜切面上滴一滴 10% 盐酸。起泡即表示有碳酸钙。表土、心土以及石砾底面的白色胶膜要分别测：从石灰岩继承来的碳酸盐，和在干旱心土中累积起来的碳酸盐，含义完全不同，而后者正是 Semiarid Soils 的关键所在。

The slake and dispersion test — for structural stability崩解与分散试验——检验结构稳定性

Drop an air-dry clod about 10 mm across into a jar of clean still water and leave it. If it collapses into a heap within seconds it slakes — typical of Pallic Soils and of fragipans, and a warning about surface capping and erosion under cultivation. If a cloud of clay spreads out around it within ten minutes it disperses, which indicates sodium on the exchange sites.

把一块约 10 毫米大的风干土块投入盛有清水的静置广口瓶中，不要搅动。若它在几秒内塌成一堆，即为崩解——这是 Pallic Soils 和脆磐的典型表现，也预示着耕作条件下容易结壳和侵蚀。若十分钟内土块周围散开一团浑浊的黏粒云，即为分散，说明交换位点上有钠。

The NaF test — for reactive aluminiumNaF 试验——检测活性铝

Smear field-moist soil on filter paper treated with phenolphthalein and add one drop of saturated sodium fluoride. A dark red colour within ten seconds is a strong reaction and means allophane or aluminium–humus complexes; no colour within two minutes is non-reactive. This is the field proxy for phosphate retention, and it is what separates an Allophanic Soil from an Oxidic one, and a Brown Soil from a Pallic one when the colour is ambiguous.

把野外润态土样抹在经酚酞处理的滤纸上，滴一滴饱和氟化钠溶液。十秒内出现深红色即为强反应，表示存在水铝英石或铝－腐殖质络合物；两分钟内不显色则为无反应。这是磷酸盐吸持量的野外替代指标，也是在颜色含混时把 Allophanic Soils 与 Oxidic Soils、Brown Soils 与 Pallic Soils 区分开的依据。

The knife test — for weathering刀刻试验——判断风化程度

Try to cut a stone from the profile with a knife. Fresh stones will not cut and point at a young soil; stones you can slice like cheese are very highly weathered and point at Granular, Ultic or Oxidic Soils on an old land surface.

试着用小刀切削剖面里的石砾。新鲜的石砾切不动，指示这是一个年轻的土壤；像切奶酪一样能削动的石砾，说明风化极为强烈，指向古老地面上的 Granular Soils、Ultic Soils 或 Oxidic Soils。

10Working the key如何使用检索表

The Key to Soil Orders is a sequential key, and that is the single thing students most often get wrong. You start at Organic Soils and work down. Every order after the first is worded "Other soils that…", so a soil belongs to the first order whose requirements it meets, and the orders below that point are never tested at all.

土纲检索表是一个顺序检索表，而这恰恰是学生最常弄错的一点。要从 Organic Soils 开始，逐条向下。第一条之后的每一个土纲，措辞都是"其余符合……的土壤"，所以一个土壤归属于它满足判据的第一个土纲，而该位置以下的土纲根本不会再被检索。

The consequences are worth stating plainly.

由此带来的几点后果，值得说清楚。

• A soil can meet the requirements of three different orders and still have exactly one correct answer — the highest of the three in the key.
• A soil that "looks like" a Brown Soil may be an Allophanic Soil, because Allophanic is tested fifth and Brown twelfth. Run the smear test before you settle on Brown.
• Anthropic Soils sit at position 13. A made soil that still meets the requirements of an earlier order keys out as that order, not as Anthropic.
• Raw Soils is not a category in its own right — it is "other soils", what is left when everything above has been ruled out.

• 一个土壤可能同时满足三个土纲的判据，但正确答案只有一个——三者中在检索表里排位最靠前的那个。
• "看起来像" Brown Soils 的土壤，可能其实是 Allophanic Soils，因为 Allophanic 排在第五位、Brown 排在第十二位。定为 Brown 之前，先做涂抹试验。
• Anthropic Soils 排在第 13 位。一个人为堆造的土壤，只要仍满足前面某个土纲的判据，就归入那个土纲，而不是 Anthropic。
• Raw Soils 并不是一个独立成立的类别——它就是"其余的土壤"，是上面所有土纲都排除之后剩下的那些。

There is one shortcut written into the key: a soil with an overthickened topsoil whose base is 45 cm or more from the mineral surface, and which is not mottled within 30 cm, is taken straight to Recent Soils.

检索表里写进了一条捷径：若表土层过厚，其底界距矿质土表面 45 厘米以上，且 30 厘米以内无斑纹，则直接判为 Recent Soils。

The field key in this app runs that sequence for you, but it will not invent evidence. Where you have not looked at something it says so and marks the order open, rather than quietly assuming the answer. A horizon counts as described once it has depths, moist colour, texture, structure and strength; from that point an unticked feature box is read as "absent", which is what a blank line on a field sheet means. Until then it is read as "not looked at".

本应用中的野外检索表会替你跑完这套顺序，但它不会替你编造证据。凡是你没有观察过的项目，它都会明确指出，并把相应土纲标为"未定"，而不会悄悄替你假设答案。一个层次只要填了深度、润态颜色、质地、结构和强度，就算描述完成；从这时起，未勾选的特征框会被读作"不存在"——这正是野外记录表上空白一栏的含义。在此之前，它被读作"尚未观察"。

If you want to see the key work before you dig anything, the field key carries twenty worked profiles from around the country — one for each order, and a second for the five that are most often mistaken for something else. Open Worked examples, read the description, decide for yourself what it should key out as, and then load it and see.

如果想在动手挖之前先看看检索表是怎么运作的，野外检索表内置了来自全国各地的二十个实例剖面——每个土纲一个，另外为最容易被误判的五个土纲各增加一个。打开 Worked examples，读一遍描述，自己先判断它应该检索为什么，然后载入看结果。

11Glossary术语表

Every term the field key and these pages use, in one place. The same entries are what appear when you hover a marked term anywhere in KiwiSoil, so nothing can be offered as a tooltip without being explained here.

野外检索表和本页用到的每一个术语，都集中在这里。你在 KiwiSoil 任何地方把鼠标停在标记词上时看到的，正是这些条目，因此凡是能作为提示弹出的内容，在这里都有解释。术语表条目为英文。

Criteria on this page are paraphrased from the Key to Soil Orders and the diagnostic horizon definitions of the New Zealand Soil Classification (Hewitt & NZSC Working Group, version 3.0), published by Manaaki Whenua — Landcare Research. Where a paraphrase and the published definition disagree, the published definition governs. Field methods follow the conventions in the New Zealand soil description handbook.

本页的各项判据，系转述自 Manaaki Whenua — Landcare Research 出版的《新西兰土壤分类》（Hewitt 与 NZSC 工作组，3.0 版）中的土纲检索表与诊断层定义。凡转述与已发表定义不一致之处，以已发表的定义为准。野外方法遵循新西兰土壤剖面描述手册的规范。土纲、土类与诊断层的正式名称保留英文原名，因为新西兰土壤分类尚无通行的中文译名。

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